第二单元 教学系统 Instructional System

3 ． Games

    A game is an activity in which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real life as they strive to attain a challenging goal.

3.1 Types of game

(1) Games with competition

① In traditional game: individual against individual; group against group; individual against a standard.

② In computer game: individual against individual; group against group; individual against a standard; players against their own previous scores.

(2) Games without competition

    On the other hand, striving to attain a challenging goal does not necessarily have to involve competition, for example, communication games, fantasy games, and encounter games exemplify a whole array of activities in which participants agree to suspend the normal rules of interpersonal communication to pursue such goals as self-awareness, empathy, sensitivity, and leadership development.

3.2 Goals of game

    • To be challenging, goals should have a probability of achievement of approximately 50 percent. A game should attain the cognitive objectives.

    • On the other hand, striving to attain a challenging goal does not necessarily have to involve competition.

3.3 Advantages and Limitations of game

(1) Advantages

    • Attractive （吸引力）：游戏为学习活动提供了一个吸引人的框架。游戏吸引人是因为有乐趣。无论是孩子还是成年人对于玩的要求，都持欢迎态度。

    • Novel （新奇）：游戏有着与日常教学相反的特点，由于新奇，引起大家的兴趣。

    • Atmosphere （气氛）：游戏带来的愉快、轻松的气氛对那些学习成绩不好的学生（他们比较排斥结构化的学习活动）尤其有吸引力。

    • Time on task （花时间完成学习任务）：游戏能够让学习者对枯燥的、重复性的学习内容保持兴趣。例如，游戏能让记忆乘法口诀表这样的枯燥活动变得有趣。

(2) Limitations

    • Competition （竞争性）：对于不喜欢竞争、对练习的内容和技能不熟练的学习者，竞争者活动可能适得其反，不能取得良好的学习效果。

    • Disrtaction （分心）：如果没有精心的管理和报告制度，学生可能只顾快活地玩，而忘了游戏活动的真正目的。

    • Poor design （差劲的设计）：为了教学目的，游戏必须提供学术技能的实际训练。设计差劲的游戏致命弱点，往往是玩家浪费大量的时间等待机会，掷色子，在棋盘上使劲移动棋子，或者做一些其他可有可无的活动。

3.4 Integration

    Integration games are particularly well suited to the following:

(1) Attainment of cognitive objectives (particularly recognition, discrimination, or memorization, such as grammar, phonics, spelling, arithmetic skills, and so on);

(2) Adding motivation to topics that ordinarily attract little student interest ( 给那些缺乏吸引力的学科增加吸引力 ) ；

(3) Small-group instruction: 提供结构化的活动，学生可以自己完成，不需要教师的监督。

(4) Basic skills ( 基本技能训练，如排序、方向感、视觉、数字概念、排列规则等 ) ；

(5) Vocabulary building （ 词汇量）：有很多商业性游戏，例如 Boggle 、 Fluster 、 Scrabble 和 Probe 等，尽管最初是为娱乐设计的，目前已经被教师成功地用于提高学生拼写能力、增加词汇量的教学过程中。

3.5 Adapting the Content of Instructional Games

    Although most teachers do not design new instructional games from scratch,they often adapt existing games by changing the subject matter while retaining the game’s structure.The original game is referred to as a frame game because its framework lends iteslf to multiple adaptations.

    Some sample adaptations:Safety tic-tac-toe,Spelling rummy,Reading concentration,Word bingo.

4. Simulations

    A Simulations is an abstraction or simplification of some real-life situation or process.In simulations,participants usually play a role that involves them in interactions with other people or with elements of the simulated environment.

    Simulations are by design active.They are not a “spectator sport.” Simulations provide realistic practice with feedback in a realistic context.

4.1 Advantages and Limitations of Simulations

(1) Advantages

   • Realistic ( 真实性 ) ：模拟最大的优点是可以在与真实情况类似的环境中进行各种练习。

    • Safe ( 安全 ) ：学习者可以在不伤害自己和他人的前提下，进行危险的练习（例如，心脏复苏）。

    • Simplified ( 简化 ) ：模拟抓住真实情景的主要特征，而不去纠缠细节。这样做的好处是：第一，避免学习者转移注意力；第二，避免过于复杂，超出学习者的理解水平。

(2)Limitations

    • Time consuming （ 耗费时间）：模拟往往采用问题解决的学习方法，学习者完全沉浸在问题情景中，尝试各种不同的解决方法。这种试错的学习方法比解释型的学习方法要花费更多的时间。

    • Oversimplification （ 过于简化）：建构主义者强调学习应当在真实的环境中进行，他们特别强调应当是包含了各种复杂性的真实情境。他们担心模拟可能让学生对真实生活情景产生误解。

4.2 Integration

    Instructional simulations,including role plays,are particularly well suited for the following:

    • Training in motor skill （训练动作技能）：包括运动技能和操作技能，还有一些复杂技能，采用真实的设备和场地训练可能很危险，或者费用太高，也可以采用模拟的方法来训练。

    • Instruction in social interaction and human relations （社交和人际关系技能）：与他人共情，适当地与他人交往时这类教学的主要目标。

    • Development of decision-making skill （培养决策能力）：例如，教师教育的微格教学、法学院的模拟法庭、商学院的管理模拟课程等。

4.3 Simulation and Problem-Based Learning

    One particular value of simulation is that it implements the problem-based learning method as directly and clearly as possible.In problem-based learning,the learner is led toward understanding principles through grappling with a problem situation.Most simulations attempt to immerse participants in a problem.

    Through simulations,we can offer learners a laboratory in areas such as the social sciences and human relations as well as in areas related to the physical sciences,where laboratories have long been taken for granted.It tends to be more time consuming than the straightforward lecture approach,but the payoff is a higher level of comprehension that is likely to be long lasting.

4.4 Simulators

    The device employed to represent a physical system in a scaled-down form is referred to as a simulator.

    Simple simulators are in widespread use in applications,such as training workers in a range of manual skills from CPR to welding.Onefamiiar example of a simulator is the flight trainer.Besides eliminating the possibility of loss of life and aircraft,these simulators allow significant savings of energy,in millions of gallons of fuel annually,and other costs.

4.5 Role Plays

    Role Playsrefers to a type of simulation in which the dominant feature is relatively open-ended interaction among people.In essence,a role play asks someone to imagine that she is another person or is in a particular situation;the person then behaves as the other person would or in the way the situation seems to demand.

    The role-play simulation has proven to be a motivating and effective method of developing social skills,especially empathy(putting oneself in someone else’s shoes).

    The sorts of tasks that lend themselves especially well to role playing are counseling,interviewing,sales and customer services,supervision,and management.The settings most often simulated are committee meetings,negotiation sessions,public meeting,work teams,and one-on-one interviews.

5 ． Simulation Games

    A simulation game combines the attributes of a simulation(role playing,a model of reality)with the attributes of a game(strving toward a goal,specific rules).Like a simulation,it may be relatively high or low in its modsling of reality.Likea game,it may or may not entail competition.

    Because they combine the characteristics of both simulations and games,instructional simulation games have advantages,limitations,and applications in common with both formats,as listed previously.In this regard one of the major reasons for using simulation and gaming methods is that they provide conditions for holistic learning. （ 采用模拟和游戏方法的一个主要原因是它可以为学习者提供一种全面完整的学习环境。）

5.1 Integration

    在教学过程中哪些课程适合采用模拟游戏呢？这样的课程有两个特点：与游戏相关的重复性练习；与模拟相关的真实情景。符合这两个条件的课程有：社会过程（ Societal Process ）、文化冲突、历史时期和生态系统等。

    教师经常采用模拟游戏方法，让学生了解一个大的动态系统的概况。玩的乐趣激发了学生的兴趣，游戏完整性让学生初步了解整个过程。这为他们下一步线性地学习每一个细节奠定了基础。

5.2 Cooperative Simulation Games （协作模拟游戏）

      传统游戏（田径竞赛和桌面游戏）都强调对手之间的竞争。最近几年，运动心理学家和教育心理学家提出一种新的理论，对人类发展中竞争的作用和必要性提出质疑。他们声称，如果孩子生长在一个以兴趣为导向的环境中，得到协作、接受和成功等要素的影响，他们就会形成坚定、积极的自我概念。受到这些新主张的启发，“新游戏”运动开始了，市场上出现了数百个“协作游戏”，这些游戏对人的体力和想象力提出了挑战，学生必须依赖协作，才能在游戏中获得成功。

      教学模拟游戏也是按照类似的理念开发的。计算机为精确地模拟问题情景提供了更多的可能。很多开发小组已经开发出了以计算机为基础的模拟游戏，要求参加者共同工作揭开神秘事件的面纱。这类模拟的特色是要求一组学生同步工作，相互协作，最终取得成功。为了保证学生在玩游戏的过程中习得相关教学内容，最好在游戏后，简单调查了解一下学生的情况。

5.3 Game,Simulation, Simulation Game 三者的关系

    The terms game,simulation,and simulation game are often used interchangeably.But because these terms have different meaning,we will discuss them separately here.

Game,simulation,and instruction are separate concepts.However,they do overlap,so a particular activity could be an instructional simulation(IS),an instructional game(IG),a simulation game(SG),or even on instructional simulation game(ISG).